Investing switching regulator

Mutual Fund Switching Securities Law Attorney Representing Los Angeles Investors and Others Investors trust their brokers to make the most of their finances and to guide them when it comes to making complicated investment decisions.

Many investors lack experience and turn to a broker to obtain his or her seasoned guidance. Unfortunately, some brokers take advantage of this trust and dependence and abuse it. One of the most common ways that brokers engage in fraud against their investor clients is through mutual fund switching.

Dedicated Los Angeles securities law lawyer Steve A. Buchwalter has provided diligent legal guidance and representation to investors throughout Southern California. If you have been burned by your broker, let Attorney Buchwalter put his skills to use for you. Recognizing Mutual Fund Switching Since they are not experts, many investors fail to recognize when mutual fund switching is taking place with their investments. In general, investors can switch between different mutual funds sponsored by the same company at no cost.

In general, transferring funds between mutual fund investments of two different mutual fund companies constitutes broker negligence if the mutual funds have similar financial purposes and the broker cannot identify a legitimate investment purpose for switching the investment to a new mutual fund. Mutual funds are typically identified as potential investment options due to their ability to provide portfolio diversification.

Even when trustees had restrictive measures in place that covered investment switching, directors and executives were sometimes given a blanket exclusion from the policies even though the policies applied to all other employees.

Inadequate oversight of investment switching: Many trustees did not have mechanisms in place to regularly review switching activity by their directors and executives, including checks to ensure compliance with policies. Trustees were instead reliant on directors and executives self-reporting any breaches of the policies. Lack of oversight of related parties: A common issue was a failure by trustees to identify switching by related persons such as a spouse of directors and executives as giving rise to a perceived or potential conflict of interest.

However, some trustees that did not have oversight processes in place for investment switching by their directors and executives at the time of the surveillance have since indicated that they were looking to implement such processes moving forward. Trustees must have effective conflicts management frameworks to prevent the misuse of such information.

Such protections will help trustees manage the risk that their executives' own interests or those of a related party results in loss of confidence in the fund or in detriment to members,' she said. ASIC will continue to follow up with trustees about areas for improvement in their conflict management frameworks.

ASIC is also continuing to gather additional information and consider next steps on some of the trading activity identified during the surveillance. ASIC will consider appropriate regulatory action where misconduct causing consumer harm is identified. ASIC issued notices to superannuation trustees to collect this information covering the calendar year.

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The Current is increasing linearly with time when the switch is closed or ON. Now if the switch will open during this time while the current is still changing, there will always a voltage drop occurring across the inductor. The voltage across the load will be lower than the input voltage. During the off state, while the switch is open, input voltage source gets disconnected, and the inductor will transfer the stored energy to the load.

The inductor will become the current source for the load. The Diode D1 will provide a return path of the current flowing through the inductor during the switch off-state. Continuous mode or discontinuous mode. Continuous mode During Continuous mode, the inductor never discharged fully, the charging cycle starts when the inductor is partially discharged. In the above image, we can see, when the switch gets on when inductor current iI increase linearly, then when the switch gets off the inductor start to decrease, but the switch again gets on while the inductor is partly discharged.

This is the Continuous mode of operation. In the Discontinuous mode, the Inductor discharged fully before starting a new charge cycle. The Inductor will discharge fully to the zero before the switch became on. During discontinuous mode, as we can see in the above image when the switch gets on the, the inductor current il increase linearly, then when the switch gets off, the inductor starts to decrease, but the switch only gets on after the inductor is fully discharged and the inductor current became completely zero.

This is the Discontinuous mode of operation. In this operation, the current flow through the inductor is not continuous. PWM and Duty Cycle for Buck Converter Circuit As we discussed in previous buck converter tutorial, varying the duty cycle we can control buck regulator circuit. For this, a basic control system is required.

An Error amplifier and switch control circuit is additionally required which will work in continuous or discontinuous mode. So, for a complete buck regulator circuit, we need an additional circuitry which will vary the duty cycle and thus the amount of time the inductor receives energy from the source. In the above image, an Error amplifier can be seen which sense the output voltage across the load using a feedback path and control the switch.

Most common control technic includes PWM or Pulse Width Modulation technic which is used to control the duty cycle of the circuitry. The control circuit controls the amount of time the switch remain open or, controlling how much time the inductor charge or discharge. This circuit controls the switch depending on the mode of operation. It will take a sample of the output voltage and to subtract it from a reference voltage and create a small error signal, then this error signal will be compared to an oscillator ramp signal and from the comparator output a PWM signal will operate or control the switch circuit.

When the output voltage changes, the error voltage also affected by it. Due to error voltage change, the comparator controls the PWM output. The PWM also changed to a position when the output voltage creates zero error voltage and by doing this, the closed control loop system executes the work. Fortunately, Most modern Switching buck regulators have this thing inbuilt inside the IC package. Thus simple circuitry design is achieved using the modern switching regulators.

The reference feedback voltage is done using a resistor divider network. This is the additional circuitry, which is needed along with inductor, diodes, and capacitors. Improve efficiency of Buck Converter Circuit Now, if we investigate about the efficiency, how much power we provide inside the circuitry and how much we get at the output. A switching regulator can easily power heavy loads from a high voltage, and save you from splurging on an additional battery pack.

Certain kinds of switching regulators can also step up voltage. Linear regulators cannot do this. How do I tell if I need a switching regulator? As a general rule of thumb, if your linear voltage regulation solution is wasting less than 0.

If your linear regulator is wasting several watts of power, you most certainly want to replace it with a switcher! Both the microcontroller and the ultrasonic rangefinder run off of 5V. You use an LM a very common linear regulator to get the voltage down to 5V from 12V. The LM can handle this without a big heatsink. You could get more battery life if you used a switching regulator, but in this case the power consumption is so low that the battery life will be very long anyway.

How much power is wasted in a linear regulator now? Without a large heatsink the LM would get so hot it would desolder itself or melt your breadboard or defeat Iceman. Even with the heatsink, 5. A switching regulator such as a DE-SW would be very useful in this case, and would reduce power losses to around 0. The final thing to consider is of course, cost.

If your project is cheap and simple enough that a switching regulator would triple the cost of the entire project, then a switching regulator may be hard to justify. However if you are building a more advanced robot, airplane etc. I am not stupid. I know you are just trying to sell your products. Why should I buy a switching regulator from you instead of from someone else?

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The inductor will become the current source for the load. The Diode D1 will provide a return path of the current flowing through the inductor during the switch off-state. Continuous mode or discontinuous mode. Continuous mode During Continuous mode, the inductor never discharged fully, the charging cycle starts when the inductor is partially discharged. In the above image, we can see, when the switch gets on when inductor current iI increase linearly, then when the switch gets off the inductor start to decrease, but the switch again gets on while the inductor is partly discharged.

This is the Continuous mode of operation. In the Discontinuous mode, the Inductor discharged fully before starting a new charge cycle. The Inductor will discharge fully to the zero before the switch became on. During discontinuous mode, as we can see in the above image when the switch gets on the, the inductor current il increase linearly, then when the switch gets off, the inductor starts to decrease, but the switch only gets on after the inductor is fully discharged and the inductor current became completely zero.

This is the Discontinuous mode of operation. In this operation, the current flow through the inductor is not continuous. PWM and Duty Cycle for Buck Converter Circuit As we discussed in previous buck converter tutorial, varying the duty cycle we can control buck regulator circuit. For this, a basic control system is required. An Error amplifier and switch control circuit is additionally required which will work in continuous or discontinuous mode. So, for a complete buck regulator circuit, we need an additional circuitry which will vary the duty cycle and thus the amount of time the inductor receives energy from the source.

In the above image, an Error amplifier can be seen which sense the output voltage across the load using a feedback path and control the switch. Most common control technic includes PWM or Pulse Width Modulation technic which is used to control the duty cycle of the circuitry. The control circuit controls the amount of time the switch remain open or, controlling how much time the inductor charge or discharge.

This circuit controls the switch depending on the mode of operation. It will take a sample of the output voltage and to subtract it from a reference voltage and create a small error signal, then this error signal will be compared to an oscillator ramp signal and from the comparator output a PWM signal will operate or control the switch circuit. When the output voltage changes, the error voltage also affected by it.

Due to error voltage change, the comparator controls the PWM output. The PWM also changed to a position when the output voltage creates zero error voltage and by doing this, the closed control loop system executes the work. Fortunately, Most modern Switching buck regulators have this thing inbuilt inside the IC package.

Thus simple circuitry design is achieved using the modern switching regulators. The reference feedback voltage is done using a resistor divider network. This is the additional circuitry, which is needed along with inductor, diodes, and capacitors.

Improve efficiency of Buck Converter Circuit Now, if we investigate about the efficiency, how much power we provide inside the circuitry and how much we get at the output. Also, there is no ideal situation in the practical field, efficiency is a larger factor for selecting Voltage regulators. One of the main power-loss factors for a switching regulator is the diode.

The forward voltage drop multiply by current Vf x i is the unused wattage which is converted to heat and reduces the efficiency of the switching regulator circuit. Not only the forward voltage drop, Reverse recovery for silicon diodes also produce unnecessary power loss and reduction of the overall efficiency. The larger the difference between the input and output voltage, the more heat is produced. In most cases, a linear regulator wastes more power stepping down the voltage than it actually ends up delivering to the target device!

This also means reduced battery life for your projects. Even the new LDO low drop-out regulators are still inefficient linear regulators - they just give you more flexibility with input voltage drops. How is a switching regulator better? A switching regulator works by taking small chunks of energy, bit by bit, from the input voltage source, and moving them to the output.

Since their efficiency is less dependent on input voltage, they can power useful loads from higher voltage sources. Switch-mode regulators are used in devices like portable phones, video game platforms, robots, digital cameras, and your computer. What can switching regulators do that linear regulators can't? With high input voltages, driving loads over mA with a linear regulator becomes extremely impractical.

Most people use a separate battery pack in these situations, so they have one battery pack for high voltage devices and one for low voltage devices. This means you have twice as many batteries to remember to charge, and twice the hassle! A switching regulator can easily power heavy loads from a high voltage, and save you from splurging on an additional battery pack. Certain kinds of switching regulators can also step up voltage.

Linear regulators cannot do this. How do I tell if I need a switching regulator? As a general rule of thumb, if your linear voltage regulation solution is wasting less than 0. If your linear regulator is wasting several watts of power, you most certainly want to replace it with a switcher!

Both the microcontroller and the ultrasonic rangefinder run off of 5V. You use an LM a very common linear regulator to get the voltage down to 5V from 12V.