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During the colonial period, overland transportation was slow and expensive, in part because of poor roads. Not until was Philadelphia served by an improved road, the Lancaster Turnpike, which allowed the growing city to be supplied with food by a fleet of Conestoga wagons. No such road connected the Lehigh Valley to Philadelphia, perhaps because the Delaware River provided a viable alternative. Unfortunately, the Delaware is a rather fast moving river which made upstream travel difficult.

As early as , the Durham Iron Company navigated the Delaware to transport its products downstream and to bring back provisions and supplies, using the Durham boat, known to history because it figured so largely in Washington's crossing of the Delaware. The usual Durham boat was flat-bottomed and had vertical sides which ran parallel to each other up to a point 12 or 14 feet from the end, where they began to taper. It measured 60 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 42 inches deep.

Downstream it was possible to carry as much as 17 tons, but upstream only 2 tons was the limit. Going downstream the three crewmen used their to foot "setting-poles," for steering. On the upstream journey, the poles were used for propelling the boat, the men walking back and forth on "walking boards" on the sides of the Durham boat.

As was the case of most development in the United States in the 18th and 19th centuries, settlers preceded public infrastructure and later built roads and bridges on an ad hoc basis to move livestock, crops, and information to and from social and market centers. Three three major towns of the Lehigh Valley each contained three waterways that would soon become impediments to land transportation.

In Bethlehem, some settlers either squatted or purchased land south of the Moravian-owned property in what would become South Bethlehem. These settlers improved a convenient north-south Indian path known as the Minsi Trail. The ferry was not legally obligated to maintain regular service, thus continual service depended on the determination and mettle of individual ferrymen. Sensing that there was money to be made in the nation's desire for improved transportation, private interest preceded public investment in roads, bridges, and canals.

Many joint stock toll road and bridge companies proliferated in the early national period. In , Schaus' ferry was replaced by the first permanent bridge over the Lehigh in Bethlehem. In Allentown, Jacob Blumer constructed a handsome chain-cabled suspension bridge over the Lehigh at Hamilton Street which began collecting tolls in Yet another private company, the Delaware Bridge Company, received a charter in to build a bridge across the Delaware from Easton to Phillipsburg.

When it opened in , it was the second fully covered bridge in the country after the Permanent Bridge at Market Street in Philadelphia. Soon thousands of canal boats passed through Bethlehem every year, bringing outsiders and goods through what was still a church-dominated community.

The canal led to real estate speculation along its pathway. When Moravian business suffered financial difficulties in the wake of the Panic of and the Lehigh River flood of , the church had to bail out its members to keep Bethlehem's land in Moravian hands. These financial problems led the Moravian church to privatize the community in In , the Moravian administrator Philip H. Goepp transferred a large parcel of former Moravian farmland on the southside of the river to Charles A. Luckenbach, who platted the first urban grid south of the Lehigh in Unlike the stolid stone buildings of the Moravians, the first new homes erected among the cluster of the preexisting farm dwellings near the bridge were simple balloon-frame clapboard structures.

Philadelphia industrialists Joseph Wharton and Samuel Weatherill acquired several acres along the river and built a zinc smelter. More importantly for the future of Bethlehem, however, was the decision by Asa Packer to locate the headquarters of his Lehigh Valley Railroad at its southern terminus in Bethlehem rather than in his home community of Mauch Chunk. In , the railroad began service between Mauch Chunk and Easton.

A railroad linking Easton to Philadelphia had been operating since Soon after completing his railroad, Packer became involved in the iron boom. The Lehigh Valley has an abundance of iron ore and limestone, two of the three ingredients needed to make iron.

White and Hazard hoped that anthracite coal could be substituted for the charcoal that fueled the furnace. In , with the help of a Welsh ironmaster, David Thomas, they succeeded and initiated an iron boom which would make the Valley the center of the nation's iron industry for decades. His railroad, in addition to hauling coal, also served the many iron furnaces and mills in the region.

Asa Packer established the Bethlehem Iron Company to provide rails for his railroad. With this symbiotic arrangement the iron company prospered and soon became the dominant industry in Bethlehem. On the Stobridge and Company's map several locomotives are shown lumbering to and fro across city streets. By this time fifty seven trains per day rumbled through the town. For those residents of the Valley accustomed to rural agricultural life, the failure to adjust to the rhythms and dangers of industrial technology could prove fatal.

On June 26, John Frey was walking east on the Lehigh Valley Railroad tracks when "the five o'clock freight train came along at a rapid rate. As soon as Mr. Frey was discovered on the track, the whistle was sounded but it was too late. Bethlehem was well served by several railroads, connecting the city to the nation's centers of capital and culture.

Philadelphia Quaker capitalist and founding partner of the Bethlehem Iron Company, Joseph Wharton routinely traveled the North Penn Railroad to attend board meetings during the s and s. Maintaining ornate stations on either side of the Lehigh, the two railroads competed for both New York and the growing tourist trade.

Both railroads served the upper Lehigh and Pocono regions and, unlike most eastern railroads serving commuter and long-haul passengers, these railroads produced elaborate tourist guides to induce patronage. The Lehigh Valley Railroad encouraged middle-class families to visit Mauch Chunk's famed Mount Pisgah, where an inclined railroad allowed unparalleled views from the summit.

The Lehigh Valley further embraced advertising and engaged the services of Philadelphia photographer William H. Rau to popularize its well-maintained trackage, its innovative engineering feats, and its stable of modern locomotiveslike the "Asa Packer" and "John Wilkes"employed in New York to Buffalo service.

On any given night in the late s an Allentown couple could hop a streetcar to the Pergola theater at 9th and Hamilton to take in a film. Walking one block up to 8th and Hamilton, one would suddenly be at the hub of city, rural, and interurban trolley lines. During the warmer months passengers could ride the Allentown and Reading Traction Company's exclusive line to Dorney Park. Via advertisements, posters, and films the Lehigh Valley Transit Company urged residents to use its service to enjoy the isolated beauty of the Delaware Water Gap.

In , this trip took roughly an hour and fifty minutesfar faster than any other mode of transportation. Slavery in Maryland declined steadily after the s as the state's economy shifted away from plantation agriculture, as evangelicalism and a liberal manumission law encouraged slaveholders to free enslaved people held in bondage, and as other slaveholders practiced "term slavery," registering deeds of manumission but postponing the actual date of freedom for a decade or more.

Baltimore's shrinking population of enslaved people often lived and worked alongside the city's growing free black population as "quasi-freedmen. Despite the overall poverty of the city's free blacks, compared with the condition of those living in Philadelphia, Charleston, and New Orleans , Baltimore was a "city of refuge," where enslaved and free blacks alike found an unusual amount of freedom.

Churches, schools, and fraternal and benevolent associations provided a cushion against hardening white attitudes toward free people of color in the wake of Nat Turner's revolt in Virginia in But a flood of German and Irish immigrants swamped Baltimore's labor market after , driving free blacks deeper into poverty.

While slave labor was about 20 percent cheaper, the company began to reduce its dependence on enslaved labor in when two slaves ran away and one died. Therefore, slaveholders in Baltimore frequently turned to gradual manumission as a means to secure dependable and productive labor from slaves. In promising freedom after a fixed period of years, slaveholders intended to reduce the costs associated with lifetime servitude while providing slaves incentive for cooperation.

Enslaved people tried to negotiate terms of manumission that were more advantageous, and the implicit threat of flight weighed significantly in slaveholders' calculations. The dramatic decrease in the enslaved population during indicates that slavery was no longer profitable in the city. Slaves were still used as expensive house servants: it was cheaper to hire a free worker by the day, with the option of dropping him or replacing him with a better worker, rather than run the expense of maintaining a slave month in and month out with little flexibility.

About 15 schools for black people were operating, including Sabbath schools operated by Methodists, Presbyterians, and Quakers, along with several private academies. All black schools were self-sustaining, receiving no state or local government funds, and whites in Baltimore generally opposed educating the black population, continuing to tax black property holders to maintain schools from which black children were excluded by law.

Baltimore's black community, nevertheless, was one of the largest and most divided in America due to this experience. The fierce politics of the s had galvanized the white workers, most of them German, who opposed slavery. The American Party emerged in the mids to represent Protestants and to counter the Democratic Party, which was increasingly controlled by Catholic Irish.

When Baltimore erupted in violence at the time of President Abraham Lincoln 's inauguration, for example, the pro- Union "Blood Tubs" that took to the streets were veterans of political rioting. The party promoted modernization, including professionalizing police and fire departments, expanding the courts, and upgrading the water supply.

Voters elected a congressman and governor nominated by the party during its short life. In the Democrat-controlled legislature took back the city police, the militia , patronage, and the electoral machinery, and prosecuted some Know-Nothings for electoral fraud.

By the Know-Nothings had split over secession. Whether the plot existed is disputed, but Lincoln and his security escort from the Pinkerton Agency believed that the danger could not be safely ignored. Much of the social and political elite favored the Confederacy—and indeed owned house slaves. They were less concerned with the abolition of slavery, an issue emphasized by Republicans, and much more with nativism, temperance, and religious beliefs, associated with the Know-Nothing Party and strongly opposed by the Democrats.

However the Germans hated slavery and supported the Union. Four soldiers and twelve civilians were killed during the riot, which caused Union troops to later occupy Baltimore in May under Gen. Benjamin F. Butler of Massachusetts. Maryland came under direct federal administration—in part, to prevent the state from seceding—until the end of the war in April When Massachusetts troops marched through the city on April 19, , en route to Washington, D.

Governor Thomas Hicks realized action needed to be taken. He convened a special session of the General Assembly but moved its location to a site in Frederick , a distance from the secessionist groups. In doing this and by other actions, Hicks managed to neutralize the General Assembly to avoid Maryland's secession from the Union, becoming a hero in the eyes of the Unionists in the state.

Meanwhile, pro- Confederate gangs burned the bridges connecting Baltimore and Washington to the North, and cut the telegraph lines. Lincoln sent in federal troops under Gen. Ben Butler ; they seized the city, imposed martial law , and arrested leading Confederate spokesmen.

The prisoners were later released and the rail lines reopened, making Baltimore a major Union base during the war. Rural blacks who flocked to Baltimore created increased competition for skilled jobs and upset the prewar relationship between free blacks and whites. As black migrants were relegated to unskilled work or no work at all, violent strikes erupted. Denied entry into the regular state militia, armed blacks formed militias of their own.

In the midst of this change, white Baltimoreans interpreted black discontent as disrespect for law and order, which justified police repression. The new Maryland state constitution of ended slavery and provided for the education of all children, including blacks. The Baltimore Association for the Moral and Educational Improvement of the Colored People established schools for blacks that were taken over by the public school system, which then restricted education for blacks beginning in when Democrats regained control of the city.

Establishing an unequal system that prepared white students for citizenship while using education to reinforce black subjugation, Baltimore's postwar school system exposed the contradictions of race, education, and republicanism in an age when African Americans struggled to realize the ostensible freedoms gained by emancipation.

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